Nanotechnology provides techniques or processes for fabricating structures, devices, and systems with features at a molecular or atomic scale, e.g., structures in a range of one to hundreds of nanometers in some applications. For example, nano-scale devices can be configured to sizes about one hundred to ten thousand times smaller than living cells, e.g., similar in size compared to some large biological molecules that make up such cells. Nanoscale materials are used to create a nanostructure, nanodevice, or a nanosystem, which can exhibit various unique properties which are not present in the same materials scaled at larger dimensions, and such unique characteristics can be exploited for a wide range of applications.